Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada

27-29 April 1998

This working paper was prepared for the Secretariat of the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) and the Global Programme of Action Coalition for the Gulf of Maine (GPAC). The views contained herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the CEC, or the governments of Canada, Mexico or the United States of America.

Reproduction of this document in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profit purposes may be made without special permission from the CEC Secretariat, provided acknowledgment of the source is made. The CEC would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication or material that uses this document as a source.

© Commission for Environmental Cooperation, 1998

The Global Programme of Action Coalition for the Gulf of Maine wishes to thank the Workshop Task Group for their support in organizing this workshop.

Special thanks are extended to the Atlantic Coastal Action Program (ACAP) at Saint John for hosting the workshop. Without their enthusiastic and professional support this workshop would not have been possible.

This workshop is a first step toward regional implementation of the Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA). Initiated by the United Nations Environment Programme, the GPA was adopted in 1995 by 108 countries, including the United States and Canada. The GPA methodology is being used in 1998 to identify region-wide priority pollutant and habitat issues, formulate an action plan and initiate implementation with a diverse group of stakeholders.

This binational effort is being carried out by a concerned group from both countries called the Global Programme of Action Coalition for the Gulf of Maine (GPAC). GPAC draws from and builds on the existing regional work of the Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment, the Regional Association for Research in the Gulf of Maine, the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) and other organizations and individuals committed to the protection of this shared public resource of world-class cultural, economic and ecological value.

A second workshop is scheduled for mid-November 1998 in the northeastern United States. Using the priorities identified in the first workshop, a similar group of participants representing various disciplines and sectors will assess management strategies and produce a regional response with immediate and long-term measures intended to reduce pollutants and protect and manage habitats in the Gulf of Maine. Their recommended regional response will include financing mechanisms and a process for evaluating successful implementation of the suggested measures.

The papers, which were distributed to participants before the workshop, were presented in the first plenary session so that all participants, who had varying degrees of familiarity with these issues, could have access to the same knowledge base and gain a greater understanding of the relationship between pollutants and habitat impacts. Workshop attendees then participated in a series of break-out sessions where more in-depth discussions and characterization of the issues assisted participants in making their own decisions about priorities. At the end of these sessions participants voted individually for the issues they believed were the most important. Thus relatively long lists of issues were ultimately narrowed down to seven pollutant and eight habitat priorities.

Workshop participants addressing pollutants began their deliberations by considering a list of 18 pollutants cited as important in the scoping paper. The group added four pollutants to this list—organic carbon, greenhouse gases (relative to climate change), sediment, and chlorine gas—and combined bacteria and viruses into a single pollutant, pathogens. Pharmaceuticals in water were identified as a horizon issue, and invasive species originating largely in ballast water were noted as a concern that should be addressed by the parties responsible for its existence.

In its first vote, the group reduced the list of pollutants to nine for more detailed discussion. In the break-out groups, some participants noted the difficulty in discussing and voting on some of the priority pollutants given the lack of sufficient data on or knowledge about the pollutants. Each break-out group dealt with this problem by either drawing on the expertise among participants or making the best decision possible given the information constraints.

The second vote (consolidated from all three groups) produced a short list of six priority pollutants. The full track plenary, after reviewing this result, chose to add a seventh pollutant to the list, as was its prerogative. The pollutant lists, not in any order of priority, are:

A summary of the comments on and scope of each pollutant on the A list was gathered from the three break-out sessions and the plenary sessions.

Pathogens, which comprise bacteria and viruses, originate in discharges by wastewater treatment plants, direct discharges of untreated sewage, agriculture and aquaculture operations and urban runoff such as that through storm drains. This being said, little is known about pathogens. E. coli is used as an indicator of the presence and concentration of pathogens, but some uncertainty exists about its validity as an indicator. Despite their low impact on ecosystems, pathogens can have a significant impact in a variety of other areas, particularly economic (shellfish and health) and cultural (First Nations and community loss of access to traditional food sources). More research is needed to determine the effects of pathogens from aquaculture and their persistence and fate in salt water and whether their occurrence is increasing or decreasing.

Biocides, which are poisonous chemicals, including pesticides, that kill living organisms, have important impacts on aquatic life and habitats. For example, the forestry herbicide Valpar poses a possible problem in clam beds. As industry and resource operations increase in size, the use of biocides to increase yield, the resultant large-scale death of nontarget species and the occurrence of serious illness and death in humans have become issues of great concern. Because the impacts of biocides vary by locality and product, research and future actions should focus on public education on the use and misuse of biocides, as well as on alternatives to biocides. Researchers need to determine what and how much are being used in, among other things, aquaculture, antifouling paints, antibiotics, disinfectants and treated lumber. More study into the synergistic and nontarget effects of biocides is required as well.

Dioxins and furans are related compounds found in chlorophenols, certain pesticides and PCB (polychlorinated biphenyl) mixtures. They are highly persistent in the environment, and they accumulate in fish in proportion to the body lipid content and age of the fish. Dioxins enter the environment through accidental release during chlorophenol production, aerial application of herbicides, smoke from combustion in municipal and industrial incinerators and the effluent of kraft bleach paper mills. Dioxins and furans have moderate impacts on human health from pervasive but low-level exposures, as well as important ecosystem and economic impacts. The effects of these persistent compounds are magnified as they move up the food chain. As a result, fishery advisories and altered eating habits are impacts commonly associated with these contaminants. More investigation is needed on the effects of dioxins and furans on marine ecosystems as well as on the role of municipal solid waste and biomedical incinerators as sources of these compounds.

Mercury, a heavy metal, accumulates very efficiently in the aquatic food web. Toxicity is influenced by the form of mercury, the environmental medium, environmental conditions, the sensitivity or tolerance of the organism and the life history stage. Inorganic mercury is less acutely toxic to aquatic organisms than methylmercury. Most mercury emissions are produced when waste or fuel containing mercury is burned. The largest identified source of mercury emissions is coal-fired utility boilers. Because of its connection with industrial development and deregulated fuel sources, mercury is evident in an increasing number of locations. Further information on mercury contamination is needed, including the effects of increased coal and oil power production on the marine environment. The cultural effects of mercury include the high risk of exposure for First Nations and coastal communities who practice subsistence fishing, the economic effects of closed fisheries on communities and the serious human health impacts of mercury ingestion which include kidney damage, muscle tremors and death. The ecosystem effects of mercury contamination should be studied in terms of fish, bird and atmospheric loading.

Of the petroleum hydrocarbons, PAHs are the most worrisome. They derive from raw petroleum products and the combustion of wood, coal and petroleum. While these are among the best understood of the pollutants mentioned in the session, little has been done to deal with their detrimental effects on the marine environment. More information is needed on specific compounds, along with an emphasis on non-point sources of PAHs (both current and historical), their presence in urban runoff and the role of marine engines as a source of PAHs. Noted for their pervasiveness, PAHs have important persistent and bioaccumulative impacts on human health from widespread sources and significant impacts on marine ecosystem health. The use of fossil fuels, a source of PAHs, presents the challenge of altering behavioral and cultural patterns and educating people about alternative technologies and treatments.

Some elements in petroleum hydrocarbons such as benzene have been linked to cancer in humans, and exposure to petroleum-based solvents is known to have serious impacts on human health. The increasing occurrence of petroleum hydrocarbons is linked to urban runoff and the continued use of fossil fuels. Like PAHs, petroleum hydrocarbons are relatively well understood but little has been done to alleviate the problems they cause. For example, a focus on the effects of chronic oil leakages by watercraft, particularly those within fisheries, would be helpful. The economic and ecosystem effects of petroleum hydrocarbons can be catastrophic and should be better studied in terms of non-point sources (current and historical), urban runoff and the contributions of marine engines, with a special emphasis on alternative technologies and treatments.

Increased levels of nitrogen cause eutrophication in embayments and nearshore coastal waters, which often results in algal blooms. Increased algae can produce mats that smother submerged aquatic vegetation and the habitat it provides, decrease light levels reaching submerged aquatic vegetation and reduce dissolved oxygen levels as they decompose. All of these effects can have significant impacts on fish and shellfish habitats—and the latter can lead to fish kills. Sources of nitrogen are wastewater treatment plants, agricultural activities and suburban landscaping use of manure and fertilizers which leads to the discharge of nitrogen compounds through groundwater or runoff from storm events or snow melt. Atmospheric deposition and the nitrogenous wastes from aquaculture operations also are growing concerns. The actual magnitude of the impact of nitrogen on the Gulf ecosystem was questioned. While the impacts of nitrogen on human health are considered low, economic and cultural problems associated with Enteromorpha sp. (a filamentous algae that forms sheets that can smother clam beds) could present serious problems, including the loss of traditional food sources and economic impacts. Algal blooms and fishery (finfish and shellfish) losses also could have effects on the economy and ecosystem. If nitrogen is discussed in terms of eutrophication, then phosphorus also must be included for a more complete understanding of this issue. Horizon issues that could become important include the increasing use of fossil fuels world-wide, the need to look more closely into aquaculture sources, the atmospheric deposition of nitrogen and the cause-and-effect relationship between nutrients and algal blooms.

Workshop participants identified eight critical aspects of physical alteration that cause, or may cause, modification or disruption of habitats in the marine environment of the Gulf of Maine.

All human-generated development, whether related to agriculture, forestry, mining, transportation, utilities, energy production, or residential and tourism development, has a potentially negative effect on marine environments. Physical alteration of coastal habitats, although unevenly distributed throughout the Gulf region, is increasing in parallel with the growth of urban sprawl, tourism and ecotourism. Land-based development pressures in these and more inland areas are believed to be having cumulative effects on marine environments—effects such as increased siltation, changes in hydraulic structure and the loss of energy-producing and -filtering biological communities. Considerable potential exists for the loss or disruption of marine and coastal habitats as a result of unplanned development. Knowledge of both the short- and long-term ecological effects of current development practices is lacking.

The Gulf region has many sources of untreated human sanitary wastes, agricultural wastes and contaminated storm waters. Little information exists on the extent to which even local habitats are affected by physical changes in bottom sediments and water clarity, but there is growing concern about the loss of shellfish and about the beaches now considered contaminated. Eutrophication within the Gulf is a variable trend, and its relationship to the causes, effects and periodicity of algal blooms and red tides is not well understood. Eutrophication is a phenomenon in which nutrient-rich water causes excessive growth (blooms) of algae and other aquatic plants, and the resultant bacteria consume nearly all oxygen in the water, thereby choking fish and other aquatic life. A red tide is typically a reddish discoloration of seawater caused by an enormous increase, or bloom, in the numbers of certain microscopic organisms. Red tides typically occur during the summer months.

The use of mobile fishing gear, including new gear technologies, in coastal embayments and estuaries is having widespread impacts on benthic (ocean bottom) marine habitats in the Gulf region. Also of concern are the by-catches produced by the use of such technologies and discarded into the sea, as well as the potential impacts such by-catches have on the structure and diversity of marine communities.

Much of the physical alteration of the region’s salt marshes occurred over the past 200 years as a result of the dikes built to drain fertile marshland for agricultural use. Conflicts still exist between the need to protect salt marshes and programs to "reclaim" salt marshes for human use. Although restoration programs aimed at returning underutilized agricultural lands to wetlands exist, there is a general lack of research on the benefits of such restoration, especially when the purpose is the creation of freshwater wetlands. The role of Atlantic salt marshes as coastal energy pumps and filters is just beginning to be recognized and understood.

The construction of dams, causeways, bridges and other hydraulic obstructions can have far-reaching effects on downstream freshwater and coastal habitats and on the distribution and abundance of freshwater and marine species. Hydraulic obstructions are common throughout the Gulf region and in some instances have resulted in changes to hydraulic conditions and sedimentation patterns. The resulting physical disturbance to habitats can have site-specific impacts such as on fish spawning as well as cumulative impacts caused by the effects on aquatic life of interference with mixing and circulation patterns, salinity distribution, ambient water temperatures and nutrient concentrations in the region. Projected changes to sea levels in the region also may affect diked lands.

The increase in finfish and shellfish culture in the Gulf region is contributing to growing concerns about the effects of these enterprises on benthic habitats and water quality. Other issues related to aquaculture operations include displacement of traditional fisheries, loss of access to marine resources, predator control, pesticide use, the potential for disease transfer to wild fish, and the escape of non-native species to the wild.

Low trophic-level species include sea plants such as kelp and rockweed and planktonic species such as krill. The increased harvesting of these species now evident in the Gulf of Maine region may not prove to be sustainable. A better understanding of the ecological roles of these species as key building blocks of the marine food chain and as physical habitats for other species is needed before valid conclusions can be drawn on either the sustainability of these harvests or their impacts on marine environments.

Current understanding of the ecological functioning of the marine environment of the Gulf of Maine region may be limited to research conducted on ecosystems already affected by human activities. "No-Take" reserves representative of key ecosystems should be established. Such reserves could serve as benchmark areas for long-term research in ecosystem dynamics.

The Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA) was developed under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assist national and regional authorities in reaching the goal of "sustainable seas." The three North American countries—Canada, Mexico and the United States—were among the more than 100 signatories who agreed in 1995 to strengthen national, regional and global arrangements for addressing marine degradation from land-based pollution and activities.

The Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) was established in 1994 by Canada, Mexico and the United States under the North American Agreement for Environmental Cooperation (NAAEC) to address regional environmental concerns, help prevent potential trade and environmental conflicts and promote the effective enforcement of environmental law. The agreement complements the environmental provisions of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).

The CEC is assisting the three North American countries in implementing the GPA by establishing cooperative partnerships that will form the basis for ongoing regional cooperation and joint actions in marine and coastal areas. Initial efforts are focused on two binational coastal regions selected by the three North American countries as pilot projects: the Bight of the Californias and the Gulf of Maine.

The Global Programme of Action Coalition (GPAC) for the Gulf of Maine has been established to implement the GPA in the Gulf region. The coalition includes representatives of the:

• federal governments of Canada and the United States;
• provincial governments of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia;
• state governments of Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts;
• Native American tribes;
• First Nations of Canada;
• industry;
• community action groups;
• environmental advocacy groups; and
• research and academic institutions.

GPAC has set a strategic course based on the principles of the GPA and is working toward the following vision for the future:

GPAC’s mission is to:

In pursuit of its mission, GPAC has set five objectives:

• Identify and assess current knowledge of the marine and coastal habitats of the Gulf of Maine and the existing and potential effects of pollutants from land-based activities on their sustainability.
• Organize a workshop of multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral participants to review this knowledge, establish attributes for priority setting and produce a consensus list of the priority pollutants and critical habitats in the Gulf of Maine requiring immediate action.
• Identify strategies and measures related to the management of the pollutants and critical habitats given priority at the first workshop.
• Organize a second workshop of multidisciplinary and cross-sectoral participants to assess management strategies and produce a regional response with immediate and long-term measures intended to reduce pollutants and protect and manage habitats in the Gulf of Maine. Such a response will include financing mechanisms and a process for evaluating successful implementation of the suggested measures.
• Secure resources from interested stakeholders to begin implementation of actions to advance the elements of the action plan.

The first two objectives were completed when priority pollutants and critical habitat issues requiring Gulf-wide action were identified at the Saint John workshop. The purpose of issue prioritization was to provide a manageable starting point for focused, collective action. In keeping with the GPAC mission, the emphasis was on issues that are of Gulf-wide concern as opposed to those that are site-specific and only require local action. Issues not making the priority short list (the "B" or reserve list, as well as the list of horizon issues) were noted for future reference when priorities are reassessed.

Participants also began to identify existing management programs that will help to advance the next phase of the process, which will culminate in a second workshop likely to be held in the northeastern United States in mid-November. At that workshop a similar multidisciplinary, cross-sectoral group will assess management strategies and produce a regional response with immediate and long-term measures intended to reduce pollutants and protect and manage habitats in the Gulf of Maine.